HOW EFFECTIVENESS CAN BE EFFECTIVE IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Indicators and Characteristics of School Effectiveness Introduction Schools and education authorities have become increasingly aware of the need to be effective. This is partly due to the pressures for accountability brought about by governments at the federal, state and local government levels and the parents, and by the economic down turn and resulting reduced resource allocations. At the same time a realisation of the importance of the issue has grown as school heads and staff have sought to increase effectiveness in the school setting as a part of the development of professionalism. In this unit, you will focus on the concepts and characteristics of learning and teaching effectiveness, and consider your role in the process of monitoring school effectiveness. Individual study time: 3 hours Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: • explain the concepts of effectiveness, monitoring, evaluation, accountability, assessment and performance in the school setting • identify the characteristics of an effective school • describe when and how learning and teaching are effective in the school setting • state the characteristics of effective guidance and counselling for school pupils • outline the qualities of a good head as a leader • explain how school ethos and policies contribute to school effectiveness. Terminology In order to avoid ambiguity in the interpretation of the contents of this module, the following definitions are suggested: Monitoring: This can be defined as collecting information at regular intervals about ongoing projects or programmes within the school system, concerning the nature and level of their performance. Regular monitoring provides baselines against which to judge the impact of inputs. Effectiveness: This is the extent to which the set goals or objectives of a school programme are accomplished. Such effectiveness can be seen in relation to either the quality, quantity, equity or equality of educational instruction given in a school. Efficiency: This is the extent to which the inputs produce the expected output in a school setting. Increased efficiency means achieving the same or better outputs with fewer or the same inputs. Accountability: This is the process of justifying to others our job performance in relation to agreed goals and targets. Evaluation: This is a formal process, carried out within a school setting and designed for particular educational purposes. It involves asking questions, gathering information and forming conclusions. The evaluation could be formative or summative in nature. Assessment: This involves the measurement of performance against a set of criteria. In the above list of terms a simple definition of effectiveness was given; but what exactly does this mean? What is effectiveness? In discussions to determine what we mean by 'effectiveness' we find that a number of terms and concepts will constantly crop up, including efficient, improvement, quality, development, evaluation, monitoring, reviewing, professional, appropriateness, accountability, performance, etc. This shows us that the concept of effectiveness is very broad, ranging over purpose, effort and accomplishment. Measurement may be used but it also involves judgement. The determinants are manifold and complex. Thus, the head may perceive the school's effectiveness as the pupils' performance in the external examinations. The parents may perceive the school's effectiveness in the way the pupils behave at home, and perform at national examinations. Society may perceive the school's effectiveness in terms of the good moral behaviour of the children. The government may use a combination of indicators. For example, the Federal Government of Nigeria's Policy on Education focuses on the following indicators of the school setting: • internal performance indicators • operating indicators • external performance indicators • staff productivity indicators. These are summarised in Fig 1. Fig 1 Indicators for measuring school effectiveness 1 Internal performance indicators 2 Operating indicators Average length of study Success rate: graduation rates Distribution of pupils Market share of applicants Teaching performance Pupil learning outcomes Class sizes Staff/pupil ratios Pupil workloads Resource usage Space usage Assets and equipment 3 External performance indicators 4 Staff productivity indicators Acceptability of graduates Destination of graduates Employer/community feedback Awards and honours Publications Contracts Invitations Citations and qualifications Membership in professional bodies Activity 1.1 List ten ways in which you can recognise that your school is effective. 10 minutes Comments It will be useful now for you to compare the list you have made with the one below, and then attempt to make some assessment of your school's effectiveness on these indicators: • purposeful leadership of the staff by the head • the involvement of the heads of department • the involvement of other teachers • structured lessons • intellectually challenging teaching • work-centred environment • maximum communication between teachers and pupils • efficient and accurate record-keeping • parental and community involvement • positive climate • consistency among teachers • productive division of labour among teachers • good parental report. It is clear that there are very many ways of judging an effective school and your list may have been somewhat different. However, heads often overlook many of these factors, and it would be useful for you to examine some of them more carefully, and for you to reflect on the effectiveness of your school. Effective learning and teaching The quality of learning and teaching should take precedence over other factors of school effectiveness. This is because effective learning and teaching determines the perceptions of everyone who is interested in the quality of your school. Because effective learning and teaching start from the classroom, let us see how pupils learn effectively in a classroom situation. Pupils learn effectively when they: • are motivated • understand the purpose and relevance of their work • are set about tasks in an orderly way • are able to use available resources and know where and when to ask for help • show consideration for one another and for the teacher • rise to the challenge of working and show commitment • have first-hand experience and are able to observe, estimate, record, measure, collect, classify and interpret • formulate and test hypotheses • acquire key information and are able to recall it in new contexts • plan, choose and take responsibility for their learning • acquire study skills and use resources well • revise and practise to improve performance • receive feedback on their progress from teachers and from other pupils • present good work for others to see or hear • undertake tasks in their own time and out of school • work co-operatively in groups • read, write, listen and discuss in a variety of contexts • experience the creative aspects of individual subjects. Activity 1.2 (1) Which of the above factors overlap? (2) Which of these factors would you suggest may be found in your school? (3) Can you add to this list? 20 minutes The following tabulation format might assist you in recording your answers to the above exercise; you may adopt a different method if you wish. Exercise(1) Exercise (2) Exercise (3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Comments It is an accepted fact that really effective learning requires a good teacher. This implies that there are certain key qualities of an 'effective teacher'. You may find it useful to consider the answers you gave to the above activity in relation to the following qualities of an effective teacher: patience, firmness, enthusiasm, calm control, tolerance, ability to generate an atmosphere of purpose, understanding, seeing learners as individuals, ability to communicate effectively, a genuine interest in pupils, valuing pupil contributions, encouraging, emotionally stable, physically stable, willingness to praise, fairness. Activity 1.3 (1) Can you suggest other qualities that an effective teacher should have? (2) Identify the qualities of teachers in your school in relation to their ability to teach effectively. (3) Which qualities, if any, would you suggest are generally lacking amongst your teachers? 20 minutes Comments Before a teacher can be effective, he or she must plan and organise their teaching well. The following are guidelines for an effective teacher in planning and organising teaching: 1 Be clear about the objectives both for each lesson and for the whole programme. 2 Plan each lesson well, anticipating where questions, explanations and feedback will be appropriate. 3 Allow learners to reach outcomes in different ways. 4 Provide resources in such a way that allows learning to progress with little interruption. 5 Use learning groups of different and appropriate sizes. 6 Match methods and tasks to the abilities of pupils. 7 Use the space available to best advantage including the use of displays. 8 Set tasks in varied and imaginative ways. 9 Be aware of other approaches to learning used by colleagues. 10 Put the children's interest first. The collection of information about teaching styles and the extent to which they are successful becomes crucial if teachers in your school are to improve their learning and teaching processes. Observation of classroom practice and the systematic collection and reporting of data about the quality of teaching is essential. For effective monitoring, the head should try to check on a day-by-day and week-by-week basis what learning has taken place. Here, the main judgements about effectiveness will be in terms of the quality, the quantity and the variety of tasks engaged in by pupils. Effective guidance and counselling One aspect of school effectiveness is the extent to which the head introduces and manages a programme of guidance and counselling of the children. This involves ensuring good relationships between teachers and pupils, meeting the needs of individual pupils and working with all the teachers to create a generally caring atmosphere. For effective guidance and counselling, the school head should note: • the need for effective organisation structures in the school • the need for effective communication. Effective organisation structures The school organisation structure and procedures should ensure the effective care of the pupils. They will vary from one type of school to another, but in general for effective guidance and counselling the following requirements are essential: • appropriate information on pupils • appropriate confidentiality at all times • sound advice and reassurance for pupils and parents at important times of transition • appropriate counselling sessions with the pupils and parents on a regular basis • prompt responses in crises • continuity of procedures for a pupil moving through the school • effective forms of records and of record-keeping • a policy in which all teachers and promoted staff are involved in information and review of the school policies. Communication Effective communication is an essential tool for the head in managing the school and ensuring that staff are aware of the pupils' needs at the right time. In respect of this the following guidelines for ensuring effective guidance and counselling are suggested: 1 Make a clear statement of policy which preferably all staff have the opportunity to formulate and review. 2 Apportion and describe jobs and relevant tasks. 3 Link guidance and counselling with the academic systems so that an all-round view of the pupil is available. 4 Give all staff an appropriate and satisfying role within the school's activities. 5 Ensure a flexible system which allows teachers to maintain an interest in a child rather than handing a case totally to a colleague. In addition, there should be a regular review of the progress of pupils with specific problems, formally conducted interviews and general discussion on important issues affecting the school pupils. In some schools, a special office is created for counsellors. Finally, it is important to consider effective communication with parents. This may be through the form of the Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) meetings or during the visiting days. Activity 1.4 Plan a visiting day for the parents of your pupils during which the parents and teachers can receive reports on the progress, problems and prospects of their children. You should list areas of interest to you, including those which fall within the area of guidance and counselling. Your objectives for the Open Day should be clearly stated in the plan. You might consider such questions as: - what should the parents see and why? - what should the role of the teachers be? - how can all the pupils play some part in the programme? 20 minutes School leadership Leadership has been defined as 'The work a manager performs to cause people to take effective action'. The head is the leader in the school setting and he or she is involved in five main management activities: Decision-making: arriving at conclusions and judgements; Communicating: creating understanding; Motivating: encouraging and inspiring people to take the required action; Selecting people: choosing people for positions in the school; Developing people: helping people to improve their knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Effective leadership is essential for the achievement of results. The head's leadership strengths or weaknesses affect the performance of the entire school. He or she can: • clarify or confuse objectives, the extent to which the curriculum is oriented to jobs, and criteria for measuring performance • stimulate or inhibit optimum performance • encourage or retard the use of his or her subordinates' best abilities, skills and interests • provide or withhold incentives for growth and development • enhance or undermine job satisfaction and morale. Activity 1.5 (1) As a school head how would you answer the following questions: - how democratic am I, and should I be? - how much do I involve my staff in group participation? - does this participation provide results or is it just a waste of valuable time? - how do I use my authority without arousing resentment? - how do I prevent my orders from being distorted by staff? - are there some groups of staff who seem to respond differently to my leadership than other groups of the staff and, if so, why?? (2) As the head of your school list some of the characteristics you think you need to develop to improve the effectiveness of your leadership. 20 minutes Comments Your list will probably have included personal attributes such as: awareness, sensitivity and an understanding of human relations; skills in the techniques of ascertaining the cause of personal problems; mastery of the art of changing behaviour; and skills in on-the-job coaching. You might like to compare your list with the following summary of leadership characteristics. The effective head: • adds value to the resources of the school • is a prime mover • energises staff • promotes the satisfaction of subordinates' needs • builds a committed and cohesive work group • sets an example to staff • is a resource expert • is a change agent • is an essential link between staff and pupils. School ethos Most schools have traditions for efficiency, effectiveness and quality, which are reflected in the pupils' behaviour, dress, discipline or the school motto. Parents often choose a particular school because of their belief in its ethos as reflected in the teachers' attitude to pupils, the teachers' skills in developing relationships with pupils and general evidence that good relationships prosper. As a school head can you suggest some other aspects? The following are identified as factors associated with a good school ethos: • the general well-being of pupils • teacher commitment and morale • positive attitudes of teachers to pupils • recognition of the motivating effects of praise • a sense of identity and pride in the school • suitably high expectation of academic progress and behaviour • the quality of teaching • the way the management supports the staff • opportunities for pupils to participate actively in their own learning • the range and quality of co-curricular activities and the opportunities to assume responsibility • an appropriate degree of both co-operation and competition • a concern to establish good relations with parents and the wider community • staff consensus on the mission and values of the school • pleasure in learning • a sense of belonging • courtesy • firm but fair classroom management • care for the fabric of buildings • support from the government • a functional and supportive former students' body • sound school policies relating to such areas as the curriculum, teaching styles, assessment, guidance and counselling, provision for pupils with learning difficulties, discipline, resource management, management structure and procedures, homework and staff development. An examination of school policies in each of the above areas will tell us a lot about a school's prevailing ethos. Although there are common basic policies in schools, most vary from school to school; but differences occur also in the nature of policies themselves. Some policies are documented, while others are traditions and a part of the school ethos. There are administrative policies which differ from statutory/government ones. But having a policy is one thing, ensuring that it is implemented is quite another, and here, the head's role is crucial. Activity 1.6 Indicate at least five areas in which your school has a clear policy available in writing, and using the format below, state whether or not and how you monitor those policies. Policy Monitoring method Teachers must be in school at least ten minutes before assembly each day. I stand at the entrance to the school with a stop- watch and record their arrival on a form! 20 minutes Comments The means you adopt to monitor the implementation of school policy will of course vary, depending on the nature of the policy. The important point is that monitoring and evaluating are essential for an effective school system, and may involve many agents and elements, and especially all the staff at different levels. In sum: 1 Each school has policies and practices which require monitoring and evaluation across all aspects of school life. 2 Individuals should monitor and evaluate their own practices, taking their pupils' views into account whenever appropriate. Monitoring, evaluating and reviewing, therefore, are features of what should go on in every school. Everyone engaged in the process at whatever level, should seeking to improve the effectiveness of the school for the benefit of all concerned - staff, parents, the community, and potential employers. The various characteristics and features of effective learning and teaching and of the effective head have been explored in this unit. Subsequent units will look in more detail at how evaluation may be undertaken. Summary We started our discussions in this unit by looking at a few concepts, the major one being that of effectiveness. Some indicators of school effectiveness were identified (Fig 1), but there is no doubt that the effectiveness of the school is closely tied to the existence of some key school management characteristics. These include sound teaching and learning, functional school organisation, good personal relations, effective guidance and counselling, a good school ethos and effective leadership, and continuous monitoring and evaluation. The latter can be considered a defining characteristic of effective management. A self-evaluation exercise (1) As a school head, and using the knowledge acquired from this unit, write a brief account for your education ministry of the effectiveness of your school. (2) Classify the various policies of your school and explain why some are more weighty and significant than others. The Rationale for Evaluation Introduction This unit seeks to explain why evaluation is a necessary tool in monitoring school effectiveness. Many school heads do not utilise evaluation as much as they should do. They merely examine students for examination purposes but ignore, for example, the reports of school inspectors. They see examinations as evaluation and consider the exam results as the end of the process. Evaluation involves reviewing the whole school process to find out why certain things have happened or what should be done to improve poor performance. School heads need to be aware that they are accountable not just to the government but to pupils and parents, as well as the community which is served by the school. Individual study time: 2 hours Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: • list reasons for establishing standards of accountability • identify the main functions of evaluation • outline the place of evaluation in effective school management. Accountability The broad aim of formal education is to produce human beings who are able to appreciate the benefits of education and contribute to the development of the community in different spheres of life, be it political, moral, social, economic or technological. Most governments see education as an important investment and therefore devote huge sums of the taxpayers' money each year to the provision of education at all levels. The government spends money on infrastructure, such as school buildings, on the payment of teachers and other personnel, and on the provision of materials. There is therefore a serious need for each government to ensure that the money provided for education is wisely spent. The government also needs to know that the aims of education are being achieved. It needs to know, through constant evaluation, where there are areas of shortcomings which need to be corrected so that the goals of education can be achieved. In addition, as schools draw their pupils from the community they are accountable to the community in many ways, including, for example, the kind of curriculum which is being operated, the quality of examination results, and the safety of the children. We will look further at the various functions in due course but first let us develop our understanding of evaluation as a management tool, building on ideas introduced in Unit 1. Effective school management and administration In Unit 1, monitoring and evaluating were identified as important school management functions, necessary for ensuring effective and efficient schools. Activity 2.1 (1) What do you understand by an efficient and effective school? (2) What steps should the school head take to ensure efficiency and effectiveness? 10 minutes Comments This section recalls some of the points made about effective schools in Unit 1 and introduces other issues relating to efficient management and administration. As you read through check whether these notes provide a full list of everything which may contribute to efficient management. School organisation A school is established to give and receive learning. A school that is able to discharge effectively its daily routines is providing value for money. For this to happen, the school should be well planned so that learning can take place in a conducive atmosphere. A pro-active management style is required where planning occurs well in advance of events occurring. An efficient school should have good communication channels for effective administration. The chart in Fig 2 is a model. Fig 2 School organisation This simple model shows the hierarchy in the school authority which must be maintained for discipline. A school without discipline cannot be efficient or effective. To each of the offices there are specific duties attached and failure of one officer will affect the effective administration of the school. School curriculum The head should see that the school calendar is collected from the State Ministry of Education and ensure that all school activities coincide with the school calender. He or she must see that textbooks, stationery, furniture, games equipment and library books are ready before school resumes. Syllabuses of all the classes must be available and, with the assistance of the assistant head, teachers will be helped to prepare schemes of work. The head and assistant head should ensure that lesson notes are made daily and that teachers teach according to the lesson notes. Assignments, tests and examinations should be marked and recorded promptly and corrections done where necessary. Teachers should do corrections with their pupils so that they can understand their mistakes. This will help to improve effectiveness in teaching. Making pupils swap their exercise books for marking without their being checked by the teacher is a practice which should only be used occasionally. Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) The head should ensure that PTA meetings are held at least once a term. It is essential that there is a cordial relationship between parents and teachers for the effective administration of the school. If parents are properly approached they can help in easing some of the financial problems in a school. In many countries PTAs have assisted schools with transportation, building of classrooms, and some have levied themselves to augment the children's feeding. Staff meetings Staff meetings (of the whole staff, departments and special committees) should be held regularly to review the running of the school. Heads should adopt a democratic system by listening to teachers and understanding their personal and professional concerns. School records The head should ensure that complete and accurate records, covering pupil and staff records, stock ledgers and registers, and other records which provide a full picture of the life of the school, are kept. It is also necessary for the head to have such records as Time and Movement Books so that absenteeism and irregular movements of staff and school resources can be checked. School accounts The head should keep proper accounts of income and expenditure and bills and receipts must be accompanied by vouchers. These are required in the auditing of the school accounts as well as promoting the principles and practice of accountability and evaluation in the school. The local government accounting staff will inspect the account books of the school to ensure that votes given to the school are properly spent. Inspection records The head must keep a record of all inspection reports and discuss these with the staff so that recommendations with regard to how the system can be improved and developed may be implemented. Activity 2.2 (1) Make a list of some essential features you should look for in an inspection report. (2) Describe how you presently use inspection records to contribute towards improvements in your school and the mechanisms for implementing change. 20 minutes Comments You will probably have included a range of features in your list including observations of lessons which focus on the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. The important point, which we wish to highlight here, is that inspection records, together with the data contained in various school records and reports, should provide information for the school head which he or she may use as a means of institutionalising changes in schools. If this is done then evaluation and monitoring become major tools for effective management. Let us now look at the functions of evaluation more closely. Functions of evaluation It is through evaluation that we learn to what extent the goals of education are being achieved. It enables us to review the progress of education and to devise new measures for its improvement and development. Four main functions of evaluation can be described. Diagnosis You can use evaluation to discover or locate weaknesses in your pupils as to what they do not know. Diagnostic testing will enable you to decide whether some of your pupils need remedial courses or not. Pre-tests given at the beginning of a class are good for determining what the pupils already know and what they do not know. For instance, at the start of an English lesson, you may ask for the meanings of some words to find out if your pupils have come across those words. You may then have to explain the meanings of such words even before the passage is read. This is to facilitate the reading exercise. This is a form of diagnostic evaluation - you have got some information by which you have judged the knowledge of the pupils and finally you have taken action to remedy the situation. Prediction Sometimes we give tests to identify the aptitudes and abilities of the pupils. This sort of test is varied so that different types of abilities are catered for. From this test you can predict pupils who are creative, technically or arts oriented and as a teacher you give them exercises that will help develop each individual's interests. The National Examination given in Nigeria to select gifted children is a good example of this. Selection Through evaluation we learn where additional and better resources - human, material and financial - are required. Thus evaluation is used to identify suitable persons for particular courses, jobs, entitlements, etc. Grading Evaluation whereby pupils are ranked and graded in order of performance is commonly used in schools. Grading between schools in terms of exam results and other performance criteria provide parents and the public with a measure for choosing which school to send their children to. Evaluation and target setting In target setting, you need to have a specific objective (or target) you want to accomplish, a plan as to how you will achieve that target and then evaluation procedures to indicate whether it has been achieved. For example, you may have many underqualified teachers in your school, who can adversely affect the quality of education. You may decide you need to enable them to obtain training, through upgrading. You will need to set a time limit for this upgrading programme and also decide what method of upgrading will be immediately useful. After setting the time target for the upgrading, you will need to plan your approach. As teachers on the job, their upgrading programme has to be an in-service course. You then need to decide how many of them should go for Sandwich Programmes held during the holidays and how many of them could be upgraded using a Distance Learning Programme, such as has been provided in Nigeria by the National Teachers' Institute (the NTI). The final step in the process is to decide on criteria for evaluating whether the objective has been achieved - and to ensure that the results of any evaluation are utilised to plan the next development. Activity 2.3 Can you provide examples of ways in which the neglect of evaluation reports has hindered the development of effective teaching and learning in your school? 10 minutes Comments You may be able to cite examples of evaluations of projects undertaken with particular goals, for example improving the quantity and quality of food in your school, repairing damaged furniture, improving discipline, etc. When actions are not taken as recommended in evaluation reports then there in unlikely to be any improvement and the quality of teaching might be affected. You might like to reflect on why evaluation reports are so often ignored, before turning to the next short activity. Activity 2.4 (1) What problems have you encountered within your school in trying to implement changes recommended by school inspectors? (2) What problems have you encountered in getting the Local Government Authority (or District Education Office) to improve your school as a result of recommendations made by school inspectors? 10 minutes Comments Problems in improving the school might be due to some of the following factors: • failure to communicate and share recommendations with those who need to know • failure on the part of the Ministry's officials to act • financial and resource constraints • inexperience in how to set about using the recommendations to implement changes • lack of organisation in the school to enable the implementation of the recommendations • mistrust of the value and accuracy of the evaluation reports. The last point is important. Often the quality of information available through evaluation exercises is rather questionable and subsequent units will explore this issue further. Summary In this unit you have studied the reasons why monitoring and evaluation are essential characteristics of effective school management. The major functions of evaluation have been identified. These fall into two main categories: evaluation to assess the extent to which goals are being achieved in order to improve performance; and evaluation for accountability purposes, in order to justify performance to others. Evaluation is about asking questions and gathering information, and attention has been drawn to both the quantity and quality of information which the school head needs in order to help improve school effectiveness. Self-evaluation exercise Imagine you are an inspector of schools. Write an inspection report on your evaluation of a particular school in your locality, perhaps your own! You could select one of the following points for particular attention: learning conditions, discipline, channels of communication, school administration, supervision by the school heads, record-keeping, involvement of PTA or staff meetings. Evaluation Techniques Introduction In this unit we will discuss the different evaluation techniques which the head can use in assessing the performance of different components in the school. Evaluation involves collecting information at regular intervals about ongoing programmes within the school and then analysing it. Data collection can be in the form of general observation of pupils, seeking views through discussion groups, peer evaluation, interviews, etc. This unit examines these techniques and also considers the role of external agencies such as the inspectorate division in the evaluation of the school. Individual study time: 4 hours Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: • describe different evaluation techniques • apply appropriate evaluation techniques to meet different situations • outline the different activities and techniques adopted by external agencies such as the inspectorate service in the evaluation of your school. The various techniques of evaluation Evaluation involves making judgements about achievement in terms of set goals, but before you can pass judgement, you must pin-point an area of activity which you seek to evaluate and then seek information about it. Based on the information you have collected, you are then in a position to pass judgement on the quality of the activity, or the particular situation in relation to the criteria set. Any or all of the following techniques may be used to gather information: Questionnaires or checklists: These can be used by the head to obtain from pupils or teachers an assessment of various aspects of school life, for example: the standard of catering services in the school; the standard of work of some specific teachers; the success of some innovations introduced to the school. It is particularly important not to try to evaluate too much at one time; instead focus on a relatively discrete and manageable topic. Observation of classes: This is a technique to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers and the overall teaching/learning environment in terms of physical facilities, for example, chalkboard, classroom seating arrangements, ventilation, etc. We can also use this technique to check the pupils' stationery/textbooks and the teachers' classroom control. Systematic reporting: This technique involves written reports or diaries on a daily or weekly basis written by pupils or teachers on, for example: chronic latecomers or absenteeism from school; the incidence of various acts of indiscipline in the school; or the quality of the co-curricular programme. Interviews: This is a technique whereby data and information is collected from pupils or staff through a face-to-face interview focusing on a specific issue. Peer evaluation: Evaluation often seems to imply someone more senior evaluating the work of someone junior. Peer evaluation involves co-workers (heads, teachers or pupils) using the techniques described above to help each other. Discussion groups: This technique recognises the views of different groups, such as teachers in different departments, school prefects, the various clubs and societies, in their evaluation of different aspects of school life. In business and industry such groups may be known as Quality Circles, since their purpose is to evaluate their work situation and then make suggestions for improvement. Local Teachers' Clubs and national associations (for example, of school heads) are really discussion groups on a larger scale. Activity 3.1 Make a note of which of these techniques you use in your school and of any problems encountered. 10 minutes Comments We will deal with each technique in turn to enable you to reflect further on its development and application. But it is important to remember that whatever technique is used, you have to ensure that the information is recorded simply and accurately and in a form that will enable you to analyse it quickly. This is most likely to involve written data (for example, questionnaires and diaries) but could include audio or video-taping (for example, observations). Questionnaires Supposing you want to assess a teacher of a senior primary class. How would you go about the task? In order to obtain information on the teacher's class performance, you might decide to design a questionnaire to be filled out by the pupils. The following variables might be a part of the questionnaire/instrument: Class: age of pupil completing the questionnaire; punctuality; commitment of the teacher to work; communication ability of the teacher; the use of a variety of teaching methods; correction of pupils' work; relationship with pupils; and so forth. You may add more areas as you see necessary or perhaps exclude some of these. In any event, a questionnaire for this level of pupils should be simple, with short and close-ended questions. After designing the questionnaire, you will need to ensure that it is distributed to the whole group or a representative group if the target population is too large. After administering the questionnaire, you will have to analyse the information in it and together with other collected or available data pass judgement on the ability of the teacher as far as the set goals of the school are concerned. For example, you might want to express the results in terms of percentages and to say whether the results are significant. Activity 3.2 Imagine that a particular club or society in your school is lagging behind others, that is, it is not very functional. Draw up a questionnaire to be administered to pupils which would evaluate the state of affairs of the club and provide an indication of how to remedy the situation. Would other evaluation techniques also be appropriate? 30 minutes Comments The questionnaire should be comprehensive and cover all the various aspects of the club such as regularity of meetings, quality and variety of activities, effectiveness of the patrons, fees charged, contributions of members during meetings, issues such as conflicts with dates of other meetings, etc. The use of a questionnaire is an important technique where concrete information can be collected from the staff and the pupils on the issue to be evaluated. A checklist may also be suitable in which simple and uncomplicated answers are required such as `Yes' or `No', `Supported' or `Not supported', or simple ticks are required on a graded scale or against a predetermined range of answers. In order to get some objective responses there may be the need for anonymity. However, this could be supplemented by more subjective data from interviews, for example. Observation of classes Observation of classes is a method of evaluating the teaching and learning process, assessing the classroom performance of teachers and providing a regular check on the state and use of classroom facilities. It may be useful for heads to organise routine observations of classes at different times of the day in the school by different teachers, including his or her own lessons. Activity 3.3 Make a list of ten items you would observe in monitoring a teacher's effectiveness in delivering a lesson in the class. 20 minutes Comments As we noted in the previous section observation might focus on aspects of the learning environment such as physical facilities. In addition your list probably includes materials which were prepared for the lesson, evidence of a lesson plan, indications that the teacher is communicating effectively with the pupils on the objective of the lesson and a range of items concerning pupil/staff interactions. Indeed, in order to evaluate the extent to which effective learning has taken place in the classroom, attention has to be focused on pupils as well as the teacher. Therefore, observation will include, for example, responses of pupils to the questions of the teacher, the time given to, and quality of written work, and the use and availability of textbooks. You might also want to evaluate contributions made by a teacher to a subject outside the classroom, for example, in a departmental meeting. Activity 3.4 Draw up a programme of classroom observation which enables you and your staff to have an effective and regular coverage of classes in your school for three months. It should cover: - a broad spectrum of teachers; - all subjects on the curriculum; - all classes in the school. 30 minutes Comments We think you will agree that it is useful to have some form of policy and programme for carrying out regular classroom observations. This should be done in such a routine way that teachers and students become familiar with observations in the classrooms. Such regular monitoring should enable any deficiencies in the physical facilities and the level and standard of lessons delivered by teachers to be rectified. As may be expected, you will find teachers making mistakes during their lessons, but you should not correct the teacher there and then in the classroom in the presence of the pupils, as this will inevitably destroy the confidence the pupils have in the teacher. However, where a teacher's mistake is likely to put the pupils or the teacher in an obvious danger such as an experiment or the use of tools in a workshop, the intervention of the head is defensible. Interviews Interviews may be structured (following a set list of questions) or unstructured (a discussion following no set plan) or semi-structured (partly set questions and partly free discussion). The last is the most common approach. You will probably have used informal interviews many times to collect information from members of staff, and will be aware of some of the problems surrounding this face-to-face technique of asking questions and noting answers (either mentally or recording on paper or tape). You might like to spend a few moments jotting down some of the advantages and disadvantages of interviews. You will no doubt agree that a major advantage of interviewing is its adaptability. A good interviewer will be able to follow up leads: 'You mentioned that......', 'Could you explain.....?'; probe responses: 'Why do you think that?' and generally get closer to an interviewee's true feelings, motives or attitudes. This is something which a questionnaire can never do. The problems are, of course, that a good interview can be very time-consuming, and there are many opportunities for bias. This can be as a result of the way in which the questions are asked and also as a result of respondents giving an 'acceptable' but inaccurate answer. Preparing for and undertaking interviews and analysing the information collected requires considerable care and attention. In sum, as with many of the other techniques discussed here, the choice should be determined by the sorts of information you wish to collect, why and from whom. For example, if you want to obtain information from younger pupils, you would probably obtain better results from talking with them than asking them to write responses in a questionnaire. Continuous assessment Continuous assessment of pupils' work involves a range of techniques by which a head ensures that pupils' work in the various subjects is regularly and comprehensively evaluated. This could include the use of regular assignments, class tests, projects, practical work as well as observation and oral tests. Activity 3.5 Compile a list of the forms of continuous assessment used in a classroom in your school over a period of a week (or more) in selected subjects. Assess the adequacy or otherwise of the test or assignments or other techniques used by the teacher and the quality of reporting. Over 1 week Systematic records It is a useful exercise for the head to draw up a checklist of important school records which should be in place at regular times in the school, and then to evaluate the purpose which such records are expected to serve in the school and their quality. In the process, the head will not only have a handy list or records, but will also have a list of staff who are responsible for keeping such records. We give an example overleaf (Fig 3) of a checklist of equipment, records and facilities which should be in place for the effective administration of the school laboratory (excluding a list of specific science equipment). Activity 3.6 Draw up a checklist similar to the one given in Fig 3 of the records and equipment which should be available for the general operation of the Fine Art Department of your school. You might like to consider how often in a school term of three months you would actually use the list and how you might use it to evaluate the general effectiveness of the administration of that department. 30 minutes Fig 3 Equipment and facilities record S/No Equipment/Record Officer/Teacher Responsible Remarks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Sand bucket Fire extinguisher Fire blanket First Aid box Stock book Breakage book Fume box Gas/electricity supply Rules and regulations on the use of the laboratory Subject syllabus Schemes of work Mark books Departmental library Science teacher Head Head School nurse Science teacher Science teacher Head Head/Science teacher Science teacher Department Head Department Head/ Science teacher Science teacher Department Head Available at all times Functioning always Available Should contain essential drugs To be kept up-to- date To be kept up-to-date Available Available To be displayed conspicuously Current syllabus Breakdown on weekly basis for each year Available at all times Available Comments One of the important points to remember about such systematic records is that for them to be useful for monitoring the effectiveness of management and administration, they must be maintained and regularly updated. They can provide a criterion against which evaluation can be made. For example, taking Fig 3, Item 5, a quick assessment can be made as to whether the information in the stock book is up-to-date. Self-evaluation by peer group contribution Peer groups in schools can be used to obtain information which can contribute towards school effectiveness. For example, various character traits manifest themselves more within the pupil peer groups than in class and could be brought to the attention of the head by members of the peer group. The head might consider exploring this avenue to help identify pupils who have particular character traits, or who have the potential to take on responsibilities such as the head prefect, class captains, house captain, games or labour prefects, etc. However, it is an 'evaluation' technique which needs to be treated with some caution and sensitivity. Discussion groups There are sometimes specific situations in a school where an evaluation can only be made by using the views of a range of appropriate groups in the school. Let us consider a situation where there have been repeated complaints by pupils about the general quality and quantity of food available in a school dining hall. It would be difficult for the head to obtain an accurate evaluation of the catering services in the school without seeking the views and opinions of all involved: the catering officers, cooks, stewards, house masters and mistresses who supervise the pupils during meals and the pupils themselves. Thus, one obvious approach to the evaluation of the catering system would be to call a meeting of this group of people to address the issue. The views and advice of this group would no doubt go a long way towards an accurate evaluation of the effectiveness of the catering services in the school. Can you suggest other sources or methods of obtaining information? You will probably have thought that a questionnaire might usefully be administered, or individual interviews undertaken. Frequently a combination of evaluation techniques are most likely to provide the range of information which is needed in order to draw conclusions. Evaluation and external agencies It is important for the head to be familiar with the work and methods of operation of external agencies who are involved in evaluation, such as the inspectorate service. It is likely that some of the techniques used by these bodies for the evaluation of schools can be adapted for use in schools, and exposure to new ideas and innovative practices in the evaluation of schools will be useful. In this respect, the head could obtain copies of reports of inspections carried out by the inspectorate as well as guidelines used by subject inspectors for the inspection of subjects. Other external agencies are also involved in evaluating schools for a variety of circumstances. For example, in Nigeria, an inspector of schools at the federal or state level could visit a school and render a 'state of the affairs' report on the 'men', materials and finances of the school. Similarly, examination bodies like the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) conduct a summative evaluation test for final year students in senior secondary schools yearly with a view to selecting those who qualify for the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE). The results of West African School Certificate (WASC) examinations could be a performance indicator for the school. Other evaluators are likely to include accountants, health inspectors, members of the school governing board, and educational researchers, all of whom visit schools to collect informnation on issues specific to them and use the information to evaluate particular problems of interest. Activity 3.7 (1) Obtain copies of the inspectorate guidelines and reports on various areas of inspection. Then examine them with respect to the techniques used to evaluate: - different subjects of the school curriculum; - school management, including administration and organisation; - co-curricular activities; - boarding house and corporate life; - school ethos. (2) Extract from these documents approaches which are applicable to the self-evaluation of your school, for use by yourself, the assistant head and heads of departments. 30 minutes Comments School inspectors adopt a range of evaluation techniques in order to gather information, draw conclusions concerning all aspects of the school, and make recommendations for improving school effectiveness. It is very likely that some of the practices adopted by inspectors can be used by you and your staff in order to undertake the self-evaluation of your programmes and teaching. A critical examination of the reports of external agencies such as the inspectorate should provide you with some useful insights into how to plan and execute a programme of evaluation. This is the focus of the next unit. Summary In this unit you have been introduced to some important techniques of evaluation, including: questionnaires, observation, interviews, peer and discussion groups, continuous assessment and records. You have also learnt that whichever technique you use, you first have to record the information gathered carefully in order to be able to analyse it and make judgements concerning the questions being asked and issues addressed. Developing evaluation instruments and analysing information may be a little technical and you may therefore need to set up a committee in your school to design proper school assessment instruments like questionnaires, interviews, observations, diary keeping and to analyse the information collected. Such a committee can also help guide the planning and execution of an ongoing programme of school evaluation, as explained in the next unit. Your inspectorate should also be able to give you considerable help in this. Self-evaluation exercise Tabulate the main areas of school life, including the curriculum, staff and students, discipline, pastoral care, environment, finance and resources, etc. and the evaluation techniques which you might develop and apply in each area in order to help contribute towards improving school effectiveness. Planning a Programme of Evaluation Introduction Evaluation is a key managerial skill, required both by those from outside schools, such as school inspectors, researchers, and examiners, and those working from within. This unit focuses on self-evaluation, that is the process of each school evaluating its own work as part of a planning and managerial process. This builds on our discussion of evaluation techniques in Unit 3. Individual study time: 2 hours Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: • analyse the factors which determine how self-evaluation could be conducted in a school • plan a suitable evaluation programme for your school • identify priorities and time-scales within which such plans could be achieved • identify the resources available for the evaluation bearing in mind other pressures on resources • collect, record, collate, analyse, interpret and report information. School readiness for self-evaluation A conducive school climate is a prerequisite for successful teaching and learning, and it is an equally necessary condition for undertaking a self-evaluation exercise. Such an exercise presupposes that both the head and the staff have the right type of positive attitude that will enable successful self-evaluation projects to be conducted. For an evaluation programme in school to be effective, the head and the staff must co-operate and work as a team. When the staff are consulted in all aspects of school matters, they are more likely to feel committed and to carry out assignments given by the head. Thus, ensuring a conducive climate is a necessary step towards introducing a systematic self-evaluation scheme into a school. What is a conducive climate? The following are some of the conditions we might look for: • commitment of the management of the school which is expressed in clear statements acknowledging the importance of self-evaluation as a necessary and ongoing aspect of policy • a management style based on openness, trust and confidence • an institutional climate which fosters collaboration, innovation and the expression of ideas, and opinion formed through rational argument • a school culture in which there is an expectation of critically reflective practices, access to information on current educational thinking and development, and which exploits the use of available expertise within the local authority, colleges of education and other agencies • a district and regional support system which is responsive to the needs of schools in developing the skills and expertise needed to develop self-evaluation strategies • an acknowledgement of the distinctions between self-evaluation procedures and appraisal procedures (see Module 3, Personnel Management, for detailed consideration of appraisal) • considerations of the resource implications of self-evaluation procedures • an awareness of the time implications of self-evaluation activities • an expectation that identified needs will be satisfied. Activity 4.1 List the steps you might take to carry out a small survey to find out how ready you and your staff are to undertake a programme of systematic evaluation in your school. 20 minutes Comment Here is one way to go about it. 1 Prepare a short questionnaire to survey staff opinion on a range of aspects of your school, including questions about the following: • the learning process and level of performance • the curriculum and how it is implemented in your school • the physical environment, including provision and maintenance. 2 You could make several simple statements about each aspect and let your staff react to each. You might also undertake informal interviews raising questions related to the 'conditions' listed above. 3 You also need to undertake your own self-assessment. The questionnaire presented in Fig 4 might be useful. Fig 4 Self-assessment questionnaire From your answers you may be able to see whether you are making all the decisions affecting your school alone, or if you believe in teamwork and involve your staff in the decision-making. Note that some seek 'agree' answers, whilst others seek 'disagree' or even neutral answers. In assessing the climate of your school, please note that there is no perfect school. No-one is likely to agree with you about everything! Your teachers may tend towards being helpers or hinderers. It is your job to try to make everyone see how they may contribute to the evaluation and change process in their own way. Planning an evaluation programme Identify the issues In planning a suitable evaluation programme for the school, the problem areas must be identified and sorted into types or categories, and then ranked according to criteria such as urgency and feasibility. Thus you can isolate the problem or issue to be studied. Such a problem or issue must be important and manageable; do not try to evaluate too much at one time. Formulate questions After selecting the problems or issues to be studied, you now decide on the specific questions to be asked, and to whom they will be addressed. For example, the priority may be the performance of students in a certain subject, or the behaviour of a particular group of pupils who exhibit deviant traits by playing truant or by destroying school property. Formulating questions requires the discipline of keeping within the bounds of your enquiry and of limiting the number of questions asked. Fix a time-scale You now need to fix a time-scale within which to conduct the evaluation. In fixing this you should take into consideration the earliest time for the evaluation to be accomplished, the latest allowable time, and slack periods, during which the evaluation could be delayed. If the evaluation goes on for too long people may lose interest and introducing changes may become more difficult. Match resources to the programme It is also very important to identify the resources available for the evaluation, in particular, the time of those who may be involved. This is necessary because the successful accomplishment of the programme will be eroded if, for example, the staff are too busy to participate. Once resources are allocated they must be matched to the time-scale and progress monitored to ensure that the exercise is completed on schedule. Collect the information As soon as the preliminary stages have been completed, the investigating team can begin the work of the evaluation proper. Basic information on the problem which has been isolated for study could be obtained using one or more of the following techniques: • using diaries that are kept systematically by individual teachers • interviews • observations, including shadowing selected teachers or pupils • brain-storming discussions • questionnaires. Collate the information The information needs to be gathered and arranged in a systematic order which will help you or your team to analyse, and interpret the data. Interpret the data It is important that an evaluation exercise such as we are proposing is not intended as research for a PhD, but as a practical, problem-solving exercise to provide new solutions to old problems. The analysis and interpretation of the data should thus be limited to describing the problem and identifying possible ways forward. Write the report You will need to consider carefully the form of your report and how it will be disseminated. The purpose of the evaluation and the target audience must be kept in view when compiling the final report. It must be short, perhaps just two or three pages, and to the point. Overlong reports divert attention from the set objective. A good report will: • state the problem • describe briefly the methods used to collect the information • identify alternative ways forward • make recommendations about which path to choose and what needs to be done to implement it. Case study Problems at Ikeja Primary School Some parents are withdrawing their children from Ikeja Primary School. Mr Musaazi, the head, decides to mount an evaluation programme to find out the reasons for the withdrawal and how best to check (or even reverse) the situation. What steps should he take? Outline a possible plan of action. 30 minutes Comments You could consider the following outline and see how it tallies with your own plan, and then enrich yours where necessary. Identifying issues The head might call a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) meeting to identify the problems. Suppose the problems listed are: • lack of equipment • increase in exam fees • low performance of students in the sciences • teachers not attending classes as and when due. Deciding on the priorities The head could call a staff meeting to explore these problems with the staff, to establish their priorities and then to decide on them as they feel appropriate and given the available resources and time. Re-arrangement of the priorities may be like this: • teachers not attending classes • low performance of students in the sciences • lack of equipment • increase in exam fees. Planning the evaluation programme The head might now decide to evaluate the first two areas, and find out about the level of teacher lateness and absenteeism, and the reasons for this, and also find out about the performance of pupils in science subjects. He or she will need to consider the scope of the evaluation, the precise form and sort of evaluation questions to be asked. Some of the topics which may need to be evaluated will include the implementation of the curriculum, lesson plans, timetable allocations, and the actual teaching performance of teachers in the class. It may be useful to set up an evaluation committee to manage the evaluation. Bearing in mind the key evaluation questions being asked, it will be necessary to decide what information is to be collected, how (questionnaires, observations, interviews, group discussions) and from whom. In the light of these decisions a time-scale can be set for the completion of evaluation (including analysis and the preparation and dissemination of the report) and then the evaluation can commence. Collection of information Considering just the quality of science teaching will involve both science pupils and their teachers in the evaluation. Pupil evaluation may be done through a review of the quality of the continuous assessment, checking through the weekly, monthly and termly assessments in science subjects. The methods used for teacher evaluation could include both peer and self-assessments. Other teachers' assessment of the teacher The head or the head of science department could carry out this assessment. See Fig 5 for an example of an instrument which could be used. Teacher's self-assessment The form shown in Fig 6 could be used. Pupil assessment of the teacher Pupils can be asked to describe their relationship with the teachers through informal interviews and to rate their teachers using the following indicators: mastery of subject, interest and involvement in teaching, relationships with pupils, personality, and involvement in co-curricular activities Fig 5 A sample observation report Fig 6 A teacher's self-assessment form Recording, analysing and interpreting information The information collected should now be collated together and analysed. The committee should write a report to be presented to the head and staff and a general staff meeting should be held to discuss the report and its findings. During this discussion, the various factors responsible for the problems will be listed out. Suggestions on how to tackle each one will be considered and a way forward, or solution, identified. Agreeing the report and disseminating findings Recommendations for improvement and a strategy for their implementation should be agreed and written up in a brief, summary report. A meeting of the parents and teachers should be held and the parents should be able to share views about the evaluation findings and the recommendations. This last step is important as it can help build up the confidence of parents in the school's ability and willingness to undertake self-evaluation for the purposes of improvement and to involve them in the process. Summary In this unit you have examined the steps to be taken in planning a programme of self-evaluation in your school. Remember, self-evaluation is an important managerial skill, the purpose of which is to bring about change in all areas of school life. Self-evaluation should be a continuous process, taking each part of school life in turn. Such an incremental approach to school development is likely to lead to more self-reliance, more accountability and a more confident, more motivated and higher achieving school. Sometimes, however, evaluation findings are not used for reasons which we will explore in the next unit. Self-evaluation exercise You should identify a particular problem(s) or issue(s) in your own school which could be evaluated and then plan a programme of evaluation following the processes described in this unit. Using Evaluation Findings Introduction As you will now appreciate from your study of Units 1-4 evaluation is a systematic planned enquiry undertaken in order to enable decision-makers to make judgements concerning the worth of an educational policy, project or programme and to achieve certain aims and purposes. Evaluation can be a costly waste of time and effort, but when done efficiently, vigorously and with the intention of improving educational provision, it is likely to be worthwhile, for the new knowledge gained can be fed back into the system to improve what goes on in the name of education. But, quite often, the findings of evaluation are not implemented. In this unit you will be asked to consider how evaluation findings can be disseminated and to examine how we can ensure that the evaluation findings are used by all concerned to enhance school effectiveness. Individual study time: 2 hours Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: • state the importance of reporting the results of monitoring and evaluation programmes to those who need to know • integrate the analysis of evaluation findings into the school decision-making process • relate the quality of evaluation findings to the level of effectiveness of the school management. The importance of evaluation findings The host of educational problems besetting schools today, such as pupil wastage in terms of drop-outs, and the low standard of education, all point to the need to overhaul our educational systems and programmes. But before this can be done, we need reliable and objective data about their current status. Through regular monitoring, evaluation and reporting we will know much better where we are and thus be able to decide what changes are needed to bring about improvement. As we have seen in the previous units, monitoring is the regular collection of information about ongoing projects and programmes within the school system with a view to determining the nature and level of their performance. A report from a monitoring team should be an objective account of progress in carrying out plans, which provide a baseline against which to judge the impact of inputs into the system under study. Monitoring should be done mainly by school heads and inspectors, but also by district or local government officials, and by officials of the Ministry of Education. Evaluation also concerns judgements made for the purpose of improvement or accountability. It is also a formal process which may be formative or summative in nature, but it is designed for a particular educational purpose. Activity 5.1 (1) List down some reasons why you think that reports from monitoring or evaluation exercises are not always made widely available. (2) What steps might be taken to rectify the situation? 15 minutes Comments There are a number of reasons you may have listed, including: • lack of a requirement to document and report findings • inadequate mechanisms to disseminate findings • need for secrecy when the findings are critical • paucity or unreliability of data which makes the evaluation report worthless • 'knowledge is power', so the fewer people who know the better. The steps which need to be taken to rectify the situation include: • writing reports which can be read (that is, they are brief and to the point and use intelligible language) • improving the means of production and reproduction (which could include word-processing) • recognising that knowledge and power are for sharing • ensuring accuracy and reliability in our reports, through setting and demanding high standards. Evaluation reports In order to appreciate how to improve the dissemination and use of evaluation findings, it will be helpful to recall the steps which lead up to the planning and implementation of an evaluation project, and the preparation of the report. We have seen (in Unit 3) that before embarking on evaluation there are certain points that we need to clarify, including: • for what purpose is an evaluation required? • who will organise the evaluation and who will participate and in what ways? • what are the possible modes of evaluation? • what are the appropriate tools of evaluation? • how will the data be recorded and analysed? • who will use the information? • what are the best ways of bringing the information to them? The information gathered should be seen as relevant to the purpose of the evaluation. The credibility of an evaluation process and its findings can be established in relation to the following: 1 It has to pass scrutiny amongst all those concerned with the overall quality of schooling. 2 It needs to be seen to be credible in the school, for example, in respect of what is being evaluated. 3 Finally, it has to satisfy people that any conclusions drawn derive from good quality information and are valid and reliable. Activity 5.2 Identify the qualities of a good evaluation report. Use your school experience and knowledge of reports by inspectors to answer this question. 20 minutes. Comments You will probably have included in your list qualities such as: systematic, comprehensive, relevant, usable, valid, reliable. It must also be readable! If the purpose of an evaluation is absolutely clear it is more likely that the correct information will be gathered to enable conclusions to be drawn and recommendations made as a basis for decision-making. It is therefore very important that after an evaluation is done one or more meetings between the evaluation team and the rest of the staff are held, during which the findings can be discussed before the release of the evaluation report. Results could also be disseminated, for example to parents, through other means, such as a newsletter or a briefing at one of the PTA meetings. Evaluation findings by external agents, such as inspectors or researchers, can help to justify the huge amounts of money spent on education every year, as well as to clarify the progress of major innovations in education such as the introduction of a new curriculum. This highlights how important it is for school heads to be able to analyse evaluation findings and decide whether, for example, the advantages claimed for a particular innovation which formed the focus of an evaluation, are valid enough for them to continue to use it or perhaps to adapt it more precisely to the school's needs. The relationship between evaluation and effective management We can illustrate the relationship between evaluation and the use of evaluation data or findings for effective school management by considering a number of examples. Pupils' enrolment Often school enrolments fluctuate from year to year; many factors may account for this. It might be difficult for a head to explain such a phenomenon, let alone suggest solutions, unless some evaluation is conducted and the findings disseminated. Such an evaluation might enable factors like school performance in public examinations, distance of school from the village, safety and security of pupils, availability and quality of transport, movement or transfer of parents, etc., to be taken into account in an analysis of the situation. There are also the issues of drop-outs, early leavers, and drop-ins in schools, particularly in towns and cities, which result in erratic fluctuations and movements. A school may wish to evaluate the influence of some of these factors to try to rectify the situation. On the other hand, the government might decide to evaluate the situation in a sample of primary schools, the results of which may provide useful conclusions and solutions which may be applied to all schools. Activity 5.3 (1) Using your school experiences, show in a table the enrolment of pupils for the last two years by class. Indicate the following as a percentage of the total: - drop-outs or early leavers; - drop-ins or repeaters; - pass-out rate; - drop-out rate. (2) How do these figures compare with those for other schools in your locality? To what extent would you say your problems are common or unique? 30 minutes Comments You may have difficulty in completing this activity in the suggested time given, if your school records and data are not well kept or up-to-date. You may not have been aware of the importance of such records nor how to keep them correctly maintained, in which case it could be that you and your staff should try to obtain more training in record-keeping. You may also feel that training is required in the use of evaluation instruments and in the interpretation of data and in the use of evaluation findings. Leadership effectiveness Evaluation can be used to assess leadership effectiveness in a school. Firstly, you may need to consider what leadership effectiveness is, and the extent to which it is determined by: • personal characteristics of the leader • nature of the situation • personal characteristics of subordinates. Next you would need to develop evaluation criteria in order to assess your own leadership effectiveness together with that of your other promoted staff. The chart opposite suggests five criteria for judging leadership and you might like to develop this by adding more evaluation criteria. If you were to undertake such a self-evaluation exercise, how might such findings be useful to you as a school head in improving your management practice? Fig 7 Assessing leadership effectiveness Indicators Low High 1 Readiness for responsibility 2 Ability to delegate 3 Maturity 4 Interest and motivation 5 Knowledge and expertise in education Evaluating staff performance A school head is also likely to be involved in assessing the performance of staff and using the evaluation findings to help improve school effectiveness. Activity 5.4 Use the assessment tool presented below in Fig 8 to assess the performance of staff in your school. You may wish to add additional performance criteria as appropriate. 15 minutes Fig 8 Assessing staff performance Performance criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor 1 Relationship with other academic staff 2 Relationship with administrative staff 3 Relationship with pupils 4 Superior-subordinate relationship 5 Oriented to the goals of the school 6 Acceptance of responsibility 7 Allocation of time 8 Communication skills 9 Ability to motivate others 10 Participation in co-curricular activities Monitoring school effectiveness Your studies of this unit, and of others in this module, will, we hope, have convinced you of the importance of monitoring and evaluating and of using the findings to bring about school improvement. We have provided only a few examples. There are of course many areas where an evaluation exercise is likely to produce findings which could inform the school decision-making process and contribute towards school effectiveness, for example in: •financial management •classroom teaching • school-community relations. Summary In this unit, you should have noted that monitoring school effectiveness involves the regular review of all the facilities of your school. Through the collection and analysis of relevant information and the setting of appropriate criteria, you may draw conclusions about the extent to which the mission, objectives and targets of your school are being achieved. Fig 9 relates monitoring and evaluation to decision-making, which is the essence of any effective managerial activity. Fig 9 Monitoring, evaluating and decision-making Self-evaluation exercise Prepare a one page proposal for an evaluation of one specific area of concern in your school. Include in your proposal the following: - title (this should indicate the purpose); - key questions; - identification of evaluators; - methods of data collection; - time-frame;